Attention: From Tires to Organisms – NationalTransport, Exposure, and Eco-Health Risks of6PPD/6PPD-Q in Terrestrial-Aquatic Systems
College of Environment and Climate, Jinan University, 511443 China
College of Environment and Climate, Jinan University, 511443 China
College of Environment and Climate, Jinan University, 511443 China
Institute of Malaysia and International Studies (IKMAS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (The National University of Malaysia), Malaysia
Abstract
Urbanization and global transportation expansion have led to widespread release of tire-derived contaminants N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N’-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD) and its quinone derivative (6PPD-Q), posing critical environmental and public healthrisks. As a key tire anti-ozonant, 6PPD rapidly oxidizes to 6PPD-Q, a highly toxic compound linked to aquatic organism mor-tality. This review synthesizes their "tires-to-organisms" pollution continuum across terrestrial-aquatic systems. Focusing onChina (the world’s largest tire producer/consumer), 6PPD-Q emissions surged 97.5% (68.2–134.7 tons) from 2013–2023, withsoil as the primary environmental sink (55.67%). 6PPD/6PPD-Q exhibit dual mobility, pervading air, water, and soil, andinduce species-specific toxicity—especially in aquatic early life stages—via conserved pathways (oxidative stress, mitochondrialdysfunction). Ubiquitous in human urine, serum, and cerebrospinal fluid, they pose multi-organ risks, with children, pregnantwomen, and occupational workers most vulnerable, linked to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, colorectal cancer, and neurologicaldysfunction. Critical research gaps include EV-related tire wear impacts, terrestrial non-model organism toxicity, longitudinalhealth studies, and mitigation validation. This work provides a comprehensive framework to inform evidence-based policiesand safeguard ecosystems and human health.
Keywords:
N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N’-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD); N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N’-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine- quinone (6PPD-Q); Biological exposure; Pollutants fate and transport; Occurrence and ecological-health risks; Terrestrial- Aquatic SystemsData Availability Statement
All data used in this study were obtained from publicly accessible databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and U.S. EPA ECOTOX). The literature mining pipeline and related scripts are available in a public GitHub repository as specified in the Methods section. Processed datasets supporting the conclusions are provided within the article and Supplementary Materials. No new experimental datasets were generated.
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